The former Greek monarch passed away this week. Even though he served as head of the Greek state only briefly, Constantine Glücksburg left his mark on the country.

During Constantine II's rule, Greece went through a period of severe political unrest which eventually resulted in the coup d'état carried out by the extreme right-wing sections of the military forces in 1967.

The mistakes of Constantine and his family, whose reign was imposed on Greece by England and other powers in the 1860s, were never pardoned by the Greek Left and pro-democracy Greek citizens.

Imposed monarchy

When a political crisis broke out in the early 1860s at the tiny Balkan kingdom of Greece, which had gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire a few decades earlier, the Glücksburgs jumped at the opportunity to sieze control. At that time, Greece’s first King, Otto, whose monarchy was forced on the young country by the Great Powers in the 1830s, was overthrown by the political and military leadership of the nation.

Otto and his wife, Queen Amalia, set out on the warship "Amalia" on October 2, 1862, intending to return soon to win back the "love of the people." Regardless, history had other plans for Otto and his wife who never returned to Greece. The revolution of October 4 resulted in his overthrowing by the rebels despite the fact that he faced no genuine opposition.

The Revolution's quick success opened the door for the Great Powers to once again become involved in Greece's internal affairs. Britain took the lead by placing a Danish prince on the Greek throne. Thus began the Glücksburg family's journey across the history of contemporary Greece.

Repeated political upheaval, successive conflicts in the Balkans and Asia Minor, and the widespread uprooting of the Christian Orthodox communities of Anatolia, Asia Minor, and Pontus were all episodes of the Glücksburgs' one-hundred-year rule over Greece. Although Greece expanded its territory during this time, the conservative nature of the monarchy and its insistence on actively interfering in national politics left little room for the growth of democracy and the socioeconomic prosperity of the nation.

An overambitious and inexperienced new King

Constantine’s father, Paul, is remembered as the ruler of Greece during the Second World War and the Greek Civil War. During the civil war, the Greek state with the backing of Western countries battled the Greek Marxist guerillas who aimed at establishing a "different" and "fairer" future for Greece based on the will of the people. In King Paul's name, hundreds of these guerrillas—many of whom had previously fought against the Nazis and Italian fascists—were forced to exile, tortured, and executed. During the same period, Frederica, Constantine's mother, launched an initiative to "reform" the children of communist combatants by "hosting" them in the Queen’s Camps. According to several historians, she was the star of a sinister drama that stigmatized contemporary Greece.

Shortly before he was crowned, Constantine rose to be a renown athlete. In 1960, the 20 year old Crown Prince Constantine competed for the Greek sailing team at the Olympic Games in Rome and took home the gold medal in the "Dragon" division. The sailing team’s victory was considered a great success since the last time Greece had won an Olympic gold medal was in 1912.

Having taken the oath before parliament on March 23, 1964, Constantine was crowned King as Constantine II at age 23. A few months later, the Danish princess Anna-Maria and the Greek King Constantine II were married in Athens. It was the first and last time a reigning monarch was officially married in Greece.

Following the celebratory days of the enthronement and royal marriage, a new era of turmoil begun for the new King after he publicly collided with the newly elected prime minister, George Papandreou. The young inexperienced King and the seasoned prime minister continued to disagree on several issues until a split in the prime minister’s party forced the government to dissolve. The period of uncertainty that followed led to the coup d'état of 1967 and the establishment of the Colonels’ junta. The overly ambitious King not only avoided fighting against the takeover but also conceded to swearing in the military government. Near the end of 1967, Constantine and his family fled Greece and went into exile following a failed attempt at a countercoup.

During the 7 years of the Colonels’ junta, Greek peoples’ civil rights were crushed and their fundamental human freedoms were systematically violated. The democratic regime and everything that it stood for was reduced to ashes while the anticommunist agenda of this far-right segment of the Greek Armed Forces flourished. The strengthened Greek Left, which had emerged once again during the 1960s to the forefront after the chaotic years of the Greek civil war, was relentlessly persecuted.

The Greek junta significantly influenced the deterioration of the Cyprus crisis and Greek-Turkish relations. The far-right military junta also undermined the newly formed Cypriot state, which had its territory invaded and de facto divided in 1974.

The dramatic events in Cyprus in 1974, which were first orchestrated by the Greek junta, cleared the way for the fall of the military government in Athens and the restoration of democracy. Three weeks after the legislative elections, on December 8, 1974, a referendum on the new constitution was held. The outcome showed a resounding majority of 69.2 percent in favor of the republic, while just 30.8% of the voters supported the restoration of the monarchy. The referendum finally settled the constitutional question. Nevertheless, according to recent information, Greece's deposed King continued to inspire expectations for his return to the throne even after the 1974 referendum.

Approximately twenty years later, in 1992, Constantine and the Greek government negotiated an agreement regarding his property in Greece. However, in 1994 the deal was revoked, and Constantine was deprived of his Greek citizenship and property in Greece. Finally, Greece was found guilty of breaking the first provision of the First Protocol by the European Court of Human Rights in November 2000. On November 28, 2002, the European Court of Justice awarded the former King Constantine II 13.7 million euros. A few years later, Constantine and his family returned to Greece as citizens of another country.

The Left never forgets

The mistakes of the deceased and deposed King and his blame for the hardships the people experienced during the latter half of the 20th century. have never been forgotten by the Greek Left.

In an article, published in "902.gr" it is stated that "those who say they surrender the (former King) to the judgment of history, should take care to wash away the reactionary - unpopular role that the palace played in all historical periods, as an institution of bourgeois power and as one polar of intra-bourgeois conflict in Greece."

The following are highlighted in a later section of the article: "While praising the 1968 junta ‘Constitution’ as a ‘good framework for the practice of civil liberties,’ the Glücksburgs vowed allegiance to the putschist regime and continued to pursue contact with the dictators after leaving Greece. The junta stocked the uninhabited islands with political prisoners, communists, and other guerillas using this ‘acceptable framework’ without, of course, offending the Glücksburgs' democratic ‘sensibilities’ because the palace has always been a staunch opponent of communism.”

In the same vein, Nikos Giannopoulos believes that the deposed King made unforgivable mistakes because of his temperament, lack of expertise, and insistence on interfering in Greece's political events. The Greek people suffered because of these errors. Giannopoulos notes that "many people of the time and historians later believed that Constantine was orchestrating a coup d'état together with the senior officers of the army immediately after the beginning of his reign," adding that with his unforgivable errors, Constantine essentially "strengthened the anti-monarchist movement in the country with his hasty and essentially unconstitutional actions".

The former Greek monarch passed away this week. Even though he served as head of the Greek state only briefly, Constantine Glücksburg left his mark on the country.

During Constantine II's rule, Greece went through a period of severe political unrest which eventually resulted in the coup d'état carried out by the extreme right-wing sections of the military forces in 1967.

The mistakes of Constantine and his family, whose reign was imposed on Greece by England and other powers in the 1860s, were never pardoned by the Greek Left and pro-democracy Greek citizens.

Imposed monarchy

When a political crisis broke out in the early 1860s at the tiny Balkan kingdom of Greece, which had gained its independence from the Ottoman Empire a few decades earlier, the Glücksburgs jumped at the opportunity to sieze control. At that time, Greece’s first King, Otto, whose monarchy was forced on the young country by the Great Powers in the 1830s, was overthrown by the political and military leadership of the nation.

Otto and his wife, Queen Amalia, set out on the warship "Amalia" on October 2, 1862, intending to return soon to win back the "love of the people." Regardless, history had other plans for Otto and his wife who never returned to Greece. The revolution of October 4 resulted in his overthrowing by the rebels despite the fact that he faced no genuine opposition.

The Revolution's quick success opened the door for the Great Powers to once again become involved in Greece's internal affairs. Britain took the lead by placing a Danish prince on the Greek throne. Thus began the Glücksburg family's journey across the history of contemporary Greece.

Repeated political upheaval, successive conflicts in the Balkans and Asia Minor, and the widespread uprooting of the Christian Orthodox communities of Anatolia, Asia Minor, and Pontus were all episodes of the Glücksburgs' one-hundred-year rule over Greece. Although Greece expanded its territory during this time, the conservative nature of the monarchy and its insistence on actively interfering in national politics left little room for the growth of democracy and the socioeconomic prosperity of the nation.

An overambitious and inexperienced new King

Constantine’s father, Paul, is remembered as the ruler of Greece during the Second World War and the Greek Civil War. During the civil war, the Greek state with the backing of Western countries battled the Greek Marxist guerillas who aimed at establishing a "different" and "fairer" future for Greece based on the will of the people. In King Paul's name, hundreds of these guerrillas—many of whom had previously fought against the Nazis and Italian fascists—were forced to exile, tortured, and executed. During the same period, Frederica, Constantine's mother, launched an initiative to "reform" the children of communist combatants by "hosting" them in the Queen’s Camps. According to several historians, she was the star of a sinister drama that stigmatized contemporary Greece.

Shortly before he was crowned, Constantine rose to be a renown athlete. In 1960, the 20 year old Crown Prince Constantine competed for the Greek sailing team at the Olympic Games in Rome and took home the gold medal in the "Dragon" division. The sailing team’s victory was considered a great success since the last time Greece had won an Olympic gold medal was in 1912.

Having taken the oath before parliament on March 23, 1964, Constantine was crowned King as Constantine II at age 23. A few months later, the Danish princess Anna-Maria and the Greek King Constantine II were married in Athens. It was the first and last time a reigning monarch was officially married in Greece.

Following the celebratory days of the enthronement and royal marriage, a new era of turmoil begun for the new King after he publicly collided with the newly elected prime minister, George Papandreou. The young inexperienced King and the seasoned prime minister continued to disagree on several issues until a split in the prime minister’s party forced the government to dissolve. The period of uncertainty that followed led to the coup d'état of 1967 and the establishment of the Colonels’ junta. The overly ambitious King not only avoided fighting against the takeover but also conceded to swearing in the military government. Near the end of 1967, Constantine and his family fled Greece and went into exile following a failed attempt at a countercoup.

During the 7 years of the Colonels’ junta, Greek peoples’ civil rights were crushed and their fundamental human freedoms were systematically violated. The democratic regime and everything that it stood for was reduced to ashes while the anticommunist agenda of this far-right segment of the Greek Armed Forces flourished. The strengthened Greek Left, which had emerged once again during the 1960s to the forefront after the chaotic years of the Greek civil war, was relentlessly persecuted.

The Greek junta significantly influenced the deterioration of the Cyprus crisis and Greek-Turkish relations. The far-right military junta also undermined the newly formed Cypriot state, which had its territory invaded and de facto divided in 1974.

The dramatic events in Cyprus in 1974, which were first orchestrated by the Greek junta, cleared the way for the fall of the military government in Athens and the restoration of democracy. Three weeks after the legislative elections, on December 8, 1974, a referendum on the new constitution was held. The outcome showed a resounding majority of 69.2 percent in favor of the republic, while just 30.8% of the voters supported the restoration of the monarchy. The referendum finally settled the constitutional question. Nevertheless, according to recent information, Greece's deposed King continued to inspire expectations for his return to the throne even after the 1974 referendum.

Approximately twenty years later, in 1992, Constantine and the Greek government negotiated an agreement regarding his property in Greece. However, in 1994 the deal was revoked, and Constantine was deprived of his Greek citizenship and property in Greece. Finally, Greece was found guilty of breaking the first provision of the First Protocol by the European Court of Human Rights in November 2000. On November 28, 2002, the European Court of Justice awarded the former King Constantine II 13.7 million euros. A few years later, Constantine and his family returned to Greece as citizens of another country.

The Left never forgets

The mistakes of the deceased and deposed King and his blame for the hardships the people experienced during the latter half of the 20th century. have never been forgotten by the Greek Left.

In an article, published in "902.gr" it is stated that "those who say they surrender the (former King) to the judgment of history, should take care to wash away the reactionary - unpopular role that the palace played in all historical periods, as an institution of bourgeois power and as one polar of intra-bourgeois conflict in Greece."

The following are highlighted in a later section of the article: "While praising the 1968 junta ‘Constitution’ as a ‘good framework for the practice of civil liberties,’ the Glücksburgs vowed allegiance to the putschist regime and continued to pursue contact with the dictators after leaving Greece. The junta stocked the uninhabited islands with political prisoners, communists, and other guerillas using this ‘acceptable framework’ without, of course, offending the Glücksburgs' democratic ‘sensibilities’ because the palace has always been a staunch opponent of communism.”

In the same vein, Nikos Giannopoulos believes that the deposed King made unforgivable mistakes because of his temperament, lack of expertise, and insistence on interfering in Greece's political events. The Greek people suffered because of these errors. Giannopoulos notes that "many people of the time and historians later believed that Constantine was orchestrating a coup d'état together with the senior officers of the army immediately after the beginning of his reign," adding that with his unforgivable errors, Constantine essentially "strengthened the anti-monarchist movement in the country with his hasty and essentially unconstitutional actions".

*Dr Nikolaos Stelgias was born in Istanbul. He is an independent researcher, writer, historian and journalist. His doctorate is in the field of the modern Turkish political system (Panteion University, 2011). His latest book “The Ailing Turkish Democracy” was published by the Cambridge Scholars Publication in 2020. Dr. Stelgias was a correspondent of the newspaper "Kathimerini (Cyprus edition)" for Turkey and the Turkish Cypriot community from 2009 to 2021. Currently, Dr. Stelgias works at the Cyprus News Agency. Dr. Stelgias publishes in Turkish news articles and analyses on Cyprus and Greece.